Organ Donation: Two Deaths or One Life

The donation of organs after death is not often a common topic; however, it is a problem that needs addressing. Organ transplantation has become a solution to organ failure, but the rate of failing organs is drastically higher than that of the donors. 118,466 (OPTN: Donor Data, Web) people are currently waiting on life-saving organs, and every ten minutes (The Need is Real, Web) another person is added to that list. It is a rising trend, and 51,701 (OPTN: Donor Data, Web) people were added to the list last year, and only 8,143 (OPTN: Donor Data, Web) people donated their organs after their death. There is simply not enough awareness or concern on this matter, and as such people needlessly die every day. The United States should revitalize the organ donation system by implementing a presumed consent policy, allowing individuals to opt-out if wanted, as opposed to the current method of mandated choice or opt-in, in order to generate more awareness and increase the number of donors. Currently, efforts to increase organ donation include: advertisement, public education campaigns, and a checkbox on a DMV form for a license. Neither is efficient, nor do they provide enough information for the individuals to actually understand what organ donation is and what it includes. When asked whether or not you would save a life if you had the ability, most people would probably answer yes. This is essentially what organ donation does, but most people don’t realize this and so they don’t elect to be one. Some may object to the idea of presumed consent legislation because they fear it would violate human rights, which is a very important factor in considering this solution. It is however void because any individuals who would not want to be a donor could simply opt out. Along with this, in the current system of mandated choice, human rights are violated constantly. Even if a person had registered to be an organ donor, it is not guaranteed, 0as in many cases it is ultimately up to the next of kin. If they do not want their loved one to be a donor, than it is highly unlikely for UNOS to receive any organs. No consideration of what was actually wanted by the patient is taken into place as there is very little time to save viable organs and therefore the next of kin is the deciding factor. Another objection that may be raised to this matter may be the family’s right to make final decisions; however, the constitution makes no allowance for the ownership of a body. It is neither property nor part of an estate, and as such not able to be owned or able to be controlled by an outside source, therefore the organs within a body are not controllable by a family member. In order to protect the right, presumed consent allows donating of all organs unless the patient was to express their want not to donate. This helps to keep the family out of the personal decision and maintains the integrity of the decision. In support of this proposal, the ethics of allowing a person to die if another is able to save them, is unavoidable. With no use to a person who is deceased, there is no reason, other than their direct discretion that should prohibit the transplant of the vital and lifesaving organs. It is imperative that a dying patient should be saved at all costs if possible, and the vanity of the current system does not allow that to happen. It is impossible to tell how many individuals have simply not taken the time to fill out the form to become an organ donor because of the lack of time or simply due to forgetfulness. The lack of opt-in donors in the US is not because they do not want to be one, but rather people are naturally conservative when it comes to doing something, they tend to put it off if it isn’t important to them at the moment. Therefore I believe it is fair to conclude that in general there are more people than are currently listed that if not wanting to donate, are not opposed to the idea. Along with this, the people that do not want to donate, usually feel much more strongly about it, and as such would be likely to opt-out. This theory is very flattering to the idea of presumed consent, as it tends to be more appealing to those with strong opinions, which mandated choice, which tends to leave out a large chunk of the population, does not. Another reason why presumed consent is better than the current system is because the results are not theoretical, but they are known to have a positive effect. Multiple countries in Europe, such as Spain and Austria (Rithalia, Web), have enacted legislation of the same effect, and the results have been phenomenal. The number of donors has surpassed that of the need for organs being added to the list (Rithalia, Web). These countries are leading the way, and why should we not follow a plan that is proven and showing an overall decrease in the number of people on the waiting lists (Rithalia, Web). No matter what objections may be raised, it is agreed that some drastic change is needed and although many options are viable, this is quite frankly the solution that will produce the quickest results while also being straight forward and easy to put into effect. The US should implement presumed consent in order to help its people that are in dire need of organ donations. It is a rising need and people’s lives are in the balance of this legislation. After all, should two people die if one of them could save the other?

Ra One- the Extra-Ordinary Sales Promotion by Srk

RA ONE- The extra-ordinary sales promotion by SRK I've often heard people say, film-making is nothing short of a gamble. And as any gambler will tell you, you've got to gamble huge to triumph huge. Going by this logic, Shah Rukh Khan is The Supreme Gambler of the year. What's at stake, beside the big money invested in RA. ONE of course, is a dream, a vision, an aspiration to make a film which appeals to kids and kids at heart. In short, attempt a film that appeals to the universal audience. At the same time, it ought to raise the bar for Hindi films. Also at stake is SRK's once-unchallenged supremacy as the reigning idol of Bollywood and that elusive thing called reputation. When you invest your repute in your dream project and stick your neck out, you expect nothing short of a mega-success. â€Å"I had a very clear of how we’ll market it. The first clarity was that we won’t have too many images of the film. I didn’t want it to be cluttered. I didn’t want it to be a hero and a heroine and their son. This is a superhero film and we had to introduce that. Whether people like it or not, my marketing thought is if you keep something in front of people for too long, they get used to it. So there was this big fear — when my costume comes out and me with blue eyes, will it be liked? Small considerations like this which you don’t think about while making the film, but when it comes out, people say, â€Å"you know what, your dadhee (beard) isn†t working at all†. SRK The daily promotional strategy of the media savvy Shah Rukh Khan seems to be working when it comes to publicizing his film ‘Ra. One’. He has pushed the film in every way possible – through multiple co-branding deals, in-film plans, promotional tie ups, marketing strategies, gaming and merchandising and much more. The ‘Ra. One’ous appetite of King Khan seems to be insatiable and everyone is being a part of it, whether they understand it or not. The film is thus ending up as the most promoted film till date â€Å"SRK’s strategy is similar to several Hollywood biggies where promotions start several months before release. Typically, big star cast movies and mega-budget releases such as Bodyguard, Singham etc start their marketing around eight weeks before release. But SRK has taken marketing to a whole new level for a Bollywood movie,† says Pritie Jadhav, chief operating officer, P9 Integrated – a division of Percept. The makers of Ra. One are on a marketing blitzkrieg Eros International and Shah Rukh Khan’s Red Chillies Entertainment have brand tie-ups for Ra. One to the tune of Rs. 52 crore of which Rs 12-15 crore has been earmarked for online promotion, an advertising executive involved with the promotion of the movie said on condition of anonymity. Brand tie-ups that the marketing spends of the film have been considerably subsidised. Some of the brands with whom tie-ups have been effected are Sony PlayStation, YouTube, Nerolac, McDonald’s, Western Union Money Transfer, UTV Indiagames, Videocon, Nokia, Coke, ESPN Star Sports and Cinthol. Eros and Red Chillies have recovered part of their huge investment in the film through in-film branding, media endorsements, pre-licensing of cable TV and satellite rights, music and other rights Promotion of the film officially began as early as December 2010 when the first poster was published in all leading news papers across the country. The film's first look was later unveiled by Khan on his Twitter page on January 1, 2011. Several months later, director Anubhav Sinha announced that he would be launching two teaser trailers of the film during the 2011 Cricket World Cup, a prior nine months before the film's actual release date. Ra. One is not a Bollywood film that [the audiences] have seen before. The kind of size and magnitude that the film has requires it to be slowly introduced to the audience and that is the very purpose why we are starting the whole communication so early. â€Å"says Anubhav Sinha The film's first theatrical trailer was released three months later to the p ublic. As a way to promote the theatrical trailer, Khan was accompanied by the director on a five city tour, which included such places like Delhi, Chandigarh, Indore and Ahmedabad. During the same event, a 3600  ft long fan mail collecting audience wishes and messages for the film was also launched. Strategies which have caught the imagination of a population of over a billion Indians * Online Promotions: Approx INR 52crore is the estimated total budget shelled out for Ra. One’s marketing, in which INR 15 crore is for online promotions. Usually Bollywood film promotions only starts eight weeks before release but SRK took it in the Hollywood way, from January of this year with his first appearance in Twitter. Later it was the Facebook Fan page that started off its promotion from March SRK and Google – YouTube announced a partnership deal on mutual benefits basis. An exclusive video was created by Red Chillies (Khan’s production company) and was integrated into the YouTube Channel (Ra. One Youtube Channel). The company launched the official customized Ra. One channel of the film on YouTube(a first for an Indian film) where several song and theatrical promos were released to the public, along with videos of the film's making, events and uncut footage. The channel also hosts games, including the first social game from India, and contests where participants can create promos from clips, music and dialogues of the film. * Merchandise: As a way to promote the film and increase its franchising business, Shahrukh Khan tied up with Seventymm to market a variety of merchandises related to the film. Products included original G. One tee shirts, coffee mugs, wrist bands, watches, mobile pouches, video cameras, as well as many other things. Similar products were also available for purchase on the official G. One online store, which was launched alongside the film's official website. [90% of the 400. 000 stationery items and toys were sold in 15 days and 100. 000 more have been ordered. The makers spent 1. 5 crore on the mold for the G. One action figure. In addition to this, a jewelery line inspired by the symbol of â€Å"Ra. One†,as well as a series of HCL laptops with customized integrated Ra. One skin[59]were also made available to the public. These products are designed in-house by Red Chillies, and have been manufactured in China. By October, 50 products will be sold in more than 3,500 stores and e-commerce sites. Comics: Red Chillies Entertainment collaborated with UTV Indiagames to develop digital comics based on the film's characters. Written by Khan, the comic featured weekly episodes and served as a prequel to the events happening in the movie * Video games: RA. ONE continues to surprise the Indian audience with new innovations on a continued basis. Red Chillies Entertai nment had declared a tie-up with Sony Computer Entertainment Europe (SCEE) to build a full cycle game on PlayStation platform. The video game version of the movie will be called ‘RA. ONE–The Game‘ and will be available on PS2 and PS3 (through PSN download). This is a newer direction for Bollywood to create a win-win strategy of both promoting the film as well as create a brand extension strategy for RA. ONE. The film, with its super hero touches, is appropriate to seamlessly use the PlayStation platform and connect with the In youth. * Print adds and billboards: Print ads have been booked in all leading publications while 1,700 billboards will show the superstar in his superhero gear. This by far the largest collaboration in terms of in terms of billboards for any movie . Somthing or the other we read about the movie everday . * â€Å"Bharat Bhraman† Tour: Shahrukh Khan is places for Ra. One. The King Khan has started his bharat bhraman and caught with his fans from Kolkata to Delhi. Shahrukh covered cities like Vadodara, Gujarat; earlier he was in Chennai for ‘Ra. One’ audio launch in Tamil; and he was in the cities Bangalore , Jaipur and Bhopal Vadodara. SRK did a 36-city tour, which will include several foreign destinations, and one of the highlights of these events will be a 3,600-feet-long fan mail collecting audience wishes and messages. Mobile Engagements and application: iPhone / iPad app for the fans, in collaboration with UTV’s Indiagames. To talk about the app – Ra. One is an arcade first-person shooter game where you can play as G. One to shoot bad guys down with their team leader Ra. One. The game comprises of three terrains – Trainyard, London Bridge and Wasteland with a total of 89 levels (called Waves in the game), starting with Wave 1 and unlocking as you complete each level. Movie themes ,songs , games , wallpapers all of which form a part of mobile engagments are easily accessible over the net * Television promotions: Appearances in three major shows (Just Dance , SA RE GA MA PA Lil Champs. Indias Got Talent)in 3 entertainment channels to participating in ‘kaun bangea corerpati’. Interviews and teasers are a constasnt attraction nowdays for the viewers . Televison promotion is playing a big role in promoting the film * Selling movie rights: Even before its release, Ra. One managed to earn a revenue of Rs132 crore simply by giving away the rights of the movie. The brand equity of film star Shahrukh Khan is unparalleled and his presence in the movie gives a huge boost to distributors and companies to get associated with the brand. Star India got the rights for Ra. One at around Rs40 crore. Apart from this, the music rights were bought for Rs15 crore by T-Series. The producers got a whopping Rs77 crore from Eros Entertainment to own the distribution rights of the movie * Release and Premiere: The movie would be released at over 3000 screens in India and over 1000 screens overseas. Apart from this, premieres at international destinations like Dubai, Toronto and London, which have a high popularity for Indian films are on cards. Due to various new marketing strategies adopted by the producers of the movie, Ra. One managed to generate a lot of positive word of mouth. If not for its success, this movie would definitely prove to be a landmark in the Indian film industry for its advertising and marketing strategies. Will promotional overdrive harm ‘RA. One'? They need to remain prepared to face the severe criticism if they fail to live up to the expectation by even a bit, and it will be difficult to match the hype because they have unveiled almost everything about ‘RA. One'. Audience expectations build up with such a high intensity campaign and the risk is that even a small disconnect can boomerang. That’s not the climax the producers would look forward to. The expections are have increased so much that if the film does not fair according to the standards set by the movie then the audience will feel cheated . Nevertheless the first reactions have come in from the trade analyst and they are optimistic about the film. â€Å"Wow! Brilliant! Mesmerising! Leaves u dumbfounded! Blockbuster! Indian cinema bar raisd! Saw portions of RA. . SRK surpasses himself. †- komal Nahata Watched more than an hour of #RaOne. Left me amazed. Technological breakthrough. At par with intl films. A superhero film that’s super! † – Taran Adarsh These reaction about the movie is only going to create a good word of mouth about the film and this will lead to audience booking there tickets Conclusion All said and done u like the promotions or not but u simply cant ignore the movie. Shahrukh Khan along with his team has made us think about the differentiated strategy implemented across the country . The strategy is here to stay . It has layed down a path that will make other filmmakers to think . As far as the box office collection goes it’s a sure short blockbuster. References * Saxena, Manjari (2011-10-24). â€Å"Ra. One: Shah Rukh Khan has another winner†. Gulf News. Retrieved 2011-10-24. * â€Å"SRK concentrates on Ra. One†. Filmfare. 2010-05-06. Retrieved 2010-08-22. * Press Trust of India (2011-10-21). â€Å"SRK turns salesman to sell ‘RA. One' merchandise†. CNN-IBN. Global Broadcast News. Retrieved 2011-10-21. * Ra. One: Exclusive & Authentic Movie Merchandise†. Seventymm. Retrieved 2011-10-20. * Adarsh, Taran (2011-10-21). â€Å"SRK, Eros take ‘Ra. One' to next level†. Bollywood Hungama. Retrieved 2011-10-21. * Bhat, Varada (2011-09-19). â€Å"Bollywoods longest promotion†. Business Standard. Retrieved 2011-09-19. * â€Å"Shah Rukh meets fans on Google Plus Hangout for RA. One chat†. CNN-IBN. Global Broadcast News. Retrieved 2011-10-20. * Shinde, Shivani (2011-08-30). â€Å"India's first social game for Ra. One†. Business Standard. Retrieved 2011-08-29. * Baksi, Dibyojyoti (2011-10-14). â€Å"SRK's discovery speaks up about RA. One†. Hindustan Times. Retrieved 2011-10-15. * Jamkhandikar, Shilpa (2011-10-13). â€Å"A Minute With: Shah Rukh Khan†. Reuters. Retrieved 2011-10-13. * RA. One's rampage. Prannoy Roy Publications. 2011-10-14. Retrieved 2011-10-20. * Joshi, Tushar (2011-10-18). â€Å"RA. One gets an addition†. The Times of India. Retrieved 2011-10-18 * NDTV Correspondent (2011-10-13). â€Å"I am SRK†. NDTV. Prannoy Roy Publications. Retrieved 2011-10-13. * Press Trust of India (2011-10-14). â€Å"Ra. One gets Rs 52-cr promotional push†. CNN-IBN. Global Broadcast News. Retrieved 2011-10-14.

Reflective Account – Plan, Prioritise and Balance Time

A situation arose relating to a Live – in carer, (to be known in this reflective account as carer A) who was due to go into a placement and relieve an existing member of staff ( to be known in this reflective account as carer B) as part of a two-week job share. Carer A had problems with regard to her residency and as a matter of urgency had to adjust the dates of the changeover. When first the call was made by carer A, she was so upset that I did not know if she was going back at all. My personal knowledge of the circumstances of the client was extensive, learned time and lots of communicating with the clients’ wife and the client himself and the achievement of home visits. I was wholeheartedly aware of how a change at such short notice would affect the clients’ wife who lives in the home, along with the client and who oversees the care provision of her husband who has advanced dementia and cannot communicate his needs at all. My immediate thoughts were not to alarm the clients’ wife unnecessarily but to establish the facts involved in situation and solve the issue with the best possible outcome for all parties in mind. In planning my steps to ensure an effective outcome, my first thoughts were to secure the existing care arrangements, which involved contacting carer B. This meant a discreet phone call to her to ask if and how long she would be able to stay to cover for carer A. I was aware that I possibly only had a window of opportunity of one week because carer B was to be placed into another live – in, with another client. I also knew that carer B had a hospital appointment to attend within the timeframe which meant that the clients’ wife would possibly require extra support for this time. Carer B agreed to stay but did need off duty for a whole day because of the distance to and from the hospital. Once the cover had been successfully secured, my next step was to find out how long this extra cover would be required for. This involved contacting carer A. It may have seemed better if I had started my enquiries the other way around but my thoughts were that if carer B had made other private plans for the week then I would have been looking for a replacement with a carer C and so I stored the information in my head. In communicating with carer A, my thoughts were to ensure that I was offering practical professional support to assist where possible with her issues and also offer a sympathetic ear to support her emotional state at the time. I had to be realistic about what I needed to achieve to ensure a positive outcome for all parties and I could only achieve a positive outcome by planning the next steps. Carer A came to the office to discuss the situation with me and together we worked out a practical plan of action. This involved a longer- term approach and would be running in the background after carer A returned to her placement and would not involve the client further at this stage. A call was then made to the clients’ wife to inform her of the situation and the steps I had already taken to ensure that our obligation as a care provider would be met. In communicating with the clients’ wife I was to be mindful as to the conversation held, my considerations toward all parties was to be factual, honest, practical and professional. The new changeover date was established, consideration was given to how best carer B could achieve her visit to the hospital and all parties agreed an arrangement as to how best both would be achieved. My involvement continued as I escorted both carer A and carer B too and from their respective placements by using my personal transport, as neither carer is a driver and access to the clients home is more challenging than most as they live away from the use of public transport. My support will continue as I will be offering practical help to carer A in ensuring a positive outcome for her. I will maintain contact with the clients’ wife by phone fortnightly In the timeframe allocated to this example of how I plan, prioritise and balance my time, I still work within the office supporting the office staff to deal with other issues that occur within any working day. I ensured that the office would be covered adequately when I was to be out of the office, I ensured that I could be contacted in the case of an emergency, should the staff need my support when out and about. I made sure that an affirmative plan of action was in place for any eventuality that could occur in this situation.

Canpaigners assert that the human rights of women are violated across Essay

Canpaigners assert that the human rights of women are violated across the world. Discuss in relation to domestic viloence in any society - Essay Example When violence is perpetrated on a woman some of the basic human rights are violated: The human right to life, the human right to respect and dignity, the human right to good physical and mental health, the human right to freedom from violence and discrimination, the human right to equality between women and men and the human right to freedom from sexual and physical abuse. As Kofi Annan (1999) UN Secretary General has said, â€Å"Violence against women is perhaps the most shameful human rights violation. And it is perhaps the most pervasive. It knows no boundaries of geography, culture, or wealth. As long as it continues, we cannot claim to be making real progress towards equality, development, and peace.† According to the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action the human rights of women and of the girl-child are "an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal human rights." There are many human rights treaties that guarantee women equal treatment and freedom from discrimination. In recent world conferences commitments have been made by governments to ensure the human rights of women. For instance womens human rights are central to the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status." Whereas The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women states that "violence against women means any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, phys ical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life." and that states have an obligation to

From the precpective of the human cognitive abilitis are current Essay

From the precpective of the human cognitive abilitis are current computer well designed - Essay Example Here, according to Zaphiris and Ang (2009), human perception, memory, and attention are important because these are crucial in ensuring the minimal use of their efforts and interaction with technology in the ultimate aim of enhanced human-computer interaction –. (p. 2550) In the context of human-centered design, it is posited that there should be a convergence of the content information, the user, the designer, and infrastructure along with the enhancement of communication effectiveness. Norman suggested three requirements for a computer design that effectively addresses the human cognitive abilities. These are: 1) conceptual models which make invisible functions visible by using feedback, as the effect of an interaction, and explanations of its use; 2) constraints which are proactive measure to limit the choices of interaction and reduce human errors; and, 3) affordance is the perception and actual properties of the thing. It suggests how the device can be possibly operated. (cited in Zaphiris and Ang 2550) With these variables in mind, it is easy to understand how the current computing technologies are well designed. Computers are currently designed after through analysis and synthesis of individual needs, cultural practice, preferences, and, yes, cognitive ability of its users. A specific demonstration of this is computer developers’ preoccupation with usability, visibility and functionality. In developing a computer operating system, for example, companies such as Microsoft and Apple are bent on reducing errors of everyday life by designing systems that feature easy navigation system, user-friendly environments, functional interface, memorability, lack of errors and user satisfaction, among other variables. This is also shown in the way designers create interaction tasks, techniques, devices and applications. The input-output relationship that characterize

Operations Process and Projects, Assignment Questions Essay

Operations Process and Projects, Assignment Questions - Essay Example Nersesian (2002) defined operations management as the design, operation, and improvement of the system that create and delivers firms' products and service combinations. Moreover, it deals with the proper allocation of resources and the strategic acquisition of technology. Some managers contend that the external environment is too influential to be ignored. Therefore, operations management also includes the proper consideration of the outside entities as contributing agent that will eventually affect the performance of the firm. The external environment consists of the customers and other economic indicators that contribute to the success and failure of firms. The analysis of operations management is critical in the success of firms. Some practitioners have instituted organisations that specifically tackle issues concerning operations management. In the next discussion, manner in which IFS renovated its operations will be illustrated. It is interesting to examine the approaches used by IFS to address the current operational predicaments. Moreover, it is important to equate other processes that were excluded from the methods used by the company. IFS Limited is a manufacturing company primarily providing supplies for retail and other purposes. Although the company has continued to exist with relative success, recent setbacks have made the company revisit its operational procedures. In particular, clients have cited the lack of quality delivery provided by IFS. The specific complaints of the customers involve the failure to satisfy the delivery requirements in quantity. In addition, some clients have pointed that the company has failed to provide prior notices for failed orders. Furthermore, deliveries that were completed exceeded the agreed time causing delays in displaying the goods in retail outlets. It is indeed imperative to create a supply chain that allows more flexibility and eliminate the problems as identified by the consumers. Initially, the plan was to implement Agile Operations Initiative that secure top notch supply chain and will limit tendencies of tardiness in deliveries. The project has adapted advanced technologies and focused on communication as its core attribute. In addition, information is being updated to determine changes in trends especially in designing quality supply chain. Definitely, the process will require several changes and an evaluation of the current system used by the company which determined as problematic. The process involves the entire organisation and the attributes that combine with the entities. Developing the supply chain requires the similar methods used in project planning. Stages such as conception, development, implementation, and termination are important points to be considered. The company needs to specifically create a system that will integrate the positive attributes of the company and the operational procedures that provide positive short-term and long-term outcomes. Project Evaluation The extent of scope covered by the project is creatively established in the project. Forecasting is an effective mechanism and allows the strategist to determine trends in customer demands. The predictions based on previous orders will enable the company to design supply chain that is flexible and becomes highly responsive in periods when the demand is high. After the forecasts have

Evaluation of research methodologies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Evaluation of research methodologies - Essay Example The supply chain is a vital topic for most of the practitioners and researchers. However, the main concerns constraining the full and complete use of the concept of supply chain management research has been the construct taking its own meaning that depends on the subjectivity of an individual and the different points if views. Therefore, there is a need for most of the researchers to operationalize and measure what actually supply chain integration means (Clarke 2005). Over the past years, one of the major themes in the supply chain literature has always been the integration as a key factor in achieving improvements. The general idea, in this case, is that the integrative practices and the high level of integration have a great impact positively on the performance of corporate and supply chain. Recent empirical work shows evidence that is convincing for the relationship between performance and integration. Although some of these studies might come under criticism for using a limited description of integration, more problems are more fundamental in both the empirical and the theoretical integration work. In future researches, there is the need for coming up with sound constructs and methodologies that are adequate to help us understand the existing relationship between the performance of supply chain and the integrative practices2. When choosing the best method for research strategy, there are several tradeoffs that are in control, realism, and the generalizability. Quantitative methods of research optimize control and generalizability that s external validity, whereas the qualitative method of research maximizes on realism, which is the internal validity. Scholars of logistics do agree that supply chain management and logistics are steeped in the paradigm of positivism, and the past research is primarily normative and quantitative (Mangan , Lalwani , and Gardner 2004).

An Evaluation Of Four Arguments Against State-Maintained Faith Schools Essay

An Evaluation Of Four Arguments Against State-Maintained Faith Schools - Essay Example An Evaluation Of Four Arguments Against State-Maintained Faith Schools There are about 20,000 schools in England, primary and secondary combined, as of 2010. 35 % or around 7000 are faith schools. 68 % of those 7000 belong to the Church of England. Roman Catholic schools make up 30 %. Of the remaining 2 %, only 58 are non-Christians, namely, Jewish (38); Muslims (11); Sikh (4); Greek Orthodox, Hindu, Quaker, Seventh Day Adventist, United Reform Church with one (1) each (DCSF 2010). We can therefore say 65 % or about 13,000 schools are NOT state-funded faith schools. Education policy has long been reviewed by the three major political parties of UK. Conservatives or the right-wing party believes in status quo, less government interventions, and less taxes. Its members have been in favor of greater individual freedom, competition, more achievements from the individual. They believe in the inevitability of unequal distribution of wealth for reasons of differences in performance and corresponding values. Another political party, the Labour Party, wants equality, stronger government influence along with higher taxes, but more budget for Social Welfare to improve the peoples’ quality of life. It is this faction who brought about â€Å"The Children’s Plan 2007† which was created for the education and well-being of children and young people. The 3rd political party, known as Liberal Democrats of UK, believes in Social Justice, Welfare State, and less government intervention.

Chinese philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Chinese philosophy - Essay Example The ultimate motive of Chuang Tzu was, probably, to appreciate the beauty of River Hao. Text 1. Chuang Tzu and Hui Tzu were strolling along the bridge of the Hao River when Chuang Tzu said, â€Å"See how the minnows come out and dart around where they please! That’s what fish really enjoy!† Hui Shi said, â€Å"You are not a fish---how do you know what fish enjoy!† Chuang Tzu said, â€Å"You’re not I, so how do you know that I do not know what the fish enjoy.† Hui Shi said, â€Å"I am not you, so I certainly don’t know what you know. On the other hand, you are certainly not a fish—so that still proves you don’t know what fish enjoys.† Chuang Tzu said, â€Å"Let go back to your original question, please. You ask me how I know what fish enjoys. So you already knew I knew it when you ask the question. I know it by standing upon the River Hao.† In just a few statements, these two characters have sparked off a delightful, thought-provoking, and philosophical discussion, indeed. The fundamentals of the discussion revolve around the individuality and uniqueness of each body in this universe. Philosophy has given way to the notion that nobody knows what the other body is in actuality. In the spectrum of philosophical thought, reality is, in fact, a fallacy and with regards to the philosophical sphere of thinking, it is a matter of fact that Hui Shi may never know what Chuang Tzu is. What may seem to the human eye could be the result of one’s own biased expectations of thought and perceptions. In short, if Hui Shi expects Chuang Tzu to be human, Chuang Tzu will seem human to Hui Shi. However, it is Chuang Tzu who knows if he, himself, is human or not. In the case that Chuang Tzu is human, then Hui Shi has objected correctly against the claim of knowing what fishes enjoy. Chuang Tzu can never perceive what it is like to b e a foreign body. Even so, Chuang Tzu should not even try to perceive because his current, fixed

Bruce Feilers Walking the Bible Essay Example for Free

Bruce Feilers Walking the Bible Essay Bruce Feiler gives his readers new perspectives on the background of the events told in the Five Books of Moses, and on the Bible itself. The book is concerned with how the land itself had a deep influence (and still has a deep influence) on the bible and the spiritual culture of the people, and the author attempts to demonstrate how the bible is still relevant today. The book is an attempt to provide a cultural and historical context for the Bible. It is peppered with the authors thoughtful insights on the relationship of the land and its people, and relates the path of (re)discovery of faith as a result of the journey, while also providing a good starting point for anyone desiring to travel through the Middle East. The book, of course, is not an objective, scholarly work, and should not be taken as such. Although scholarly views of the events outlined in the five books and of the land and culture relevant to these events are presented, it is by no means a scientific work, as obvious from the religious theme of the book. Feiler takes the reader on a two-year exploration of the first five books of the Bible, by actually trekking through the land in which the events in the five books occur. The land itself is the focus of the book. He provides his insights on the effects of the land of the people, ancient and modern, and relates the views of the Jews on the relationship between god and the people. He describes the wilderness as instrumental in uniting the ancient Israelites as a people. He describes his experience in the desert, the journey through which Feiler states is the core of the first five books. It is in the desert where he experienced the â€Å"raw human emotion involved in being in a stark place, confronting the limitations of ones upbringing, and trying to forge a new identity in the midst of a difficult, transforming journey. † Feiler did not have a strong motivating purpose at the start of his journey, but he relates the significant change in attitude that the journey brought to himself. His initial intention was merely to be a tourist of sorts, using the Bible as a travel guide to experience and appreciate the land in which the events in the first five books of the Bible occur, but when he starts his journey, he finds out that there is a palpable â€Å"connection† between the land and the people, and he stops seeing the Bible as merely a travel guide. Through his journey he develops insights into himself concerning his faith, particularly on his identity as a Jew. Feiler â€Å"rediscovers† his faith as a result of this journey, and provides some unique perspectives on the five books of Moses. Of course, as it focuses on the land, the book is also a travel memoir, a travel guide of sorts, providing useful tidbits for readers intending to journey there as well. Through his gustatory descriptions of geographical features, he manages to convey his impression of the sacredness of the land. He provides some background on scientific and historical arguments that have concerned the authenticity of the bible, but ultimately demonstrates that such concerns on empirical facts have little bearing on faith. He also outlines the influences of Israels relationships with neighboring lands, particularly Egypt and Mesopotamia, and how the culture of Israel was deeply connected to the land itself. The book focuses on faith, on history, and on travel, all in the context of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. As a work of literature, it is not outstanding. As a travel memoir, it provides some useful and entertaining facts about the geography and culture of Israel. But the book is mostly focused on the author himself, on his views and insights gained from his journey; the book succeeds ultimately as a spiritual undertaking.

Tourism as a Form of Neocolonialism

Tourism as a Form of Neocolonialism One of the most crucial areas within the literature is how power plays a part in the development of tourism. The specific balances of power determine how tourism can be developed in a region, and whether this is an indigenously motivated process or part of a neo-colonialist agenda. Butler and Hinch (2007:308-309) point out that power is usually not evenly distributed within most regions, and that political power and economic power determine how tourism develops. For example, in Australia the Aboriginal people are encouraged to engage in tourism development, yet they have little say in how this development occurs, and they have few means to access their specific cultural images or representations. Whilst this shows the inequality in power, the work does not show what the consequences of this are. It shows that non-indigenous people do not often have control over tourism development, but not what the agenda of the non-indigenous culture is. Also, this is a specific case involving indig enous and non-indigenous peoples in one country, rather than one region lacking control over their tourism strategies in light of influence from foreign organisations. However, this argument is a good starting point because it is from such economic and political inequalities that tourism as neo-colonialism occurs. From the 1960s onwards, tourism was seen as a great moderniser that could improve the prospects of developing countries. However, because these developing countries often did not have the means to develop this industry themselves, the resources and expertise of developed countries made it possible. This also meant the developed countries set the agenda for development, focusing on what would be a good model for a developed country in Europe, for instance. This, as stated by Hughes (in Lew, Hall and Williams, 2004:498-499) can be used as a way for developed countries to maintain control over developing nations and maintain the need for their dependency on developed countries. However, this does not adequately explain whether this type of neo-colonial development was short-lived, or whether it still continues today. Also, it looks at the pr oblem only from whether tourism itself in this form is useful for the destination region, rather than the intertwined relationship of all regions involved tourism activities. The point being missed here is that it is logical for many tourism initiatives to be influenced and determined by the needs of those outside the destination region. Whilst local tourism is one concern, it is a small concern when compared to the possible economic advantages of attracting tourists from developed countries. As Akama (in Hall and Tucker, 2004:140-141) points out, this is certainly the case in the development of safari tourism in Africa. It was initially created during the colonial era, and is still influenced by the power structures that existed at this time. This was certainly necessary in terms of the development of tourism as foreign investment was required. However, what is crucial here is that this neo-colonial influence means that whilst tourism meets the needs of those from developed countries, so the revenues generated often do not remain within the destination market, and so no development past this tourism is easily possible whilst there is such a reliance on t he developed countries. How this is interpreted really depends on the specific levels of empowerment being discussed. Church and Coles (2007:205) say there are three types of empowerment national, local and personal. If we are talking about national empowerment, then tourism does suffer from neo-colonial influence. This is because national economies in many developing countries remain dependent on specifically Western-centric forms of tourism and its development. However, the influence is perhaps less obvious at local and personal level. Tourism provides work and jobs, which can help individuals move away from previous levels of poverty. It can also revitalise an area and provide new facilities for locals. However, this is very much dependent on the type of tourism being developed and the specific economic level of locals versus the facilities being created. What is clear here is that even though tourism at a national level can be deemed neo-colonial in many areas, this does not mean the neo-colonial influ ence reaches down to create negative consequences at the local or personal levels. However, according to Richards and Hall (2003:27) it is likely that negative neo-colonial influence can extend to the local or personal level, particularly if the type of tourism pays little attention to traditional culture and its values. Also, where tourism occurs in only some regions within a country, it adversely affects other regions. As money is invested in one region, another region can suffer and gain more power. This leads to unequal development, and also could leave locals with a choice between living in an area where their traditional cultures are eroded but money is available, or living where traditions are maintained but investment is not forthcoming. However, this still does not examine whether current tourism practices are specifically neo-colonial. It only shows that in its most extreme form, neo-colonial tourism can have a negative impact at all levels and can maintain power inequalities, despite the seeming economic advantages on the surface. This idea of pervasive neo-colonialism in tourism is reinforced by Mowforth and Munt (2008:56-57). They explain that countries such as Fiji, despite political independence, remain neo-colonialist economies because their continued stability and prosperity depend upon tourism from Western countries. This means further development has to take into account these needs, and also helps to maintain previous colonial spatial structures because they are best suited for the needs of the market that remains so important to the country. Whilst this certainly seems to the consensus when it comes to many developing countries that depend on tourism, the focus is perhaps too much just on the economic impacts rather than the potential impacts that neo-colonialism through tourism could have on race, culture and class. For example, Crick (1994:65) points out a study by Mendis (1981) that suggests the nature of tourism in Sri Lanka has led to a culture of servility that risks creating a generation of butlers. This wipes away cultural traditions and places racial inequalities between the tourists who are served and the locals who serve them. In order to continue bringing in tourists, these countries have to hide other inequalities and poverty, thereby potentially making these problems worse down the line and tacitly helping to maintain the stereotypes and inequalities between developed countries and the destination region. This again shows that neo-colonial tourism has, at least in the past and possibly still now, occurred. However, what is the overall level of tourism as neo-colonialism, and are there different approaches to tourism than the neo-colonialist approach? One area that could be described as a response or antidote to neo-colonial tourism is the increasing growth of the independent traveller. These are people who do not tend to visit regular tourist destinations, and do not seek out established tourist structures. These individuals believe they are not contributing to the inequalities that are seen through major tourist development, but in fact such inequalities are often inescapable. As tourists move away from one tourist area to independently travel, new lines of tourism are inevitably formed. Also, by attempting to control or decide exposure to tourist facilities, the traveller is inadvertently contributing to decisions about the development of certain areas. For example, some boatmen and guides in India have licenses that restrict the areas they can go with tourists. This means tourists have greater access and mobility within the destination environment than the local guides another example of inequality, even when it is merely an effort to potentially allow a less neo-colonial tourist experience. Furthermore, it is this idea of First World tourist determining the agenda to the Third World that contributes to inequalities, no matter the form of tourism being developed (Lozanski, 2008:31-33). This is perhaps the biggest problem -that the entire debate is only focused on the flow of mobility, education, economics and decision-making in one direction. For example, the tourist situation in Jamaica is often looked at from the negative neo-colonial standpoint, where large foreign hotel chains such as RIU Hotels mean that much of the money generated through tourism leaves Jamaica and ends up back in Western countries (Dei, 2006: 200). Even though this is a valid criticism, it only looks at the situation from one side. It does not take into account the desires and needs of the Jamaican people, and whether or not having these hotels that remove revenue from the economy is any worse than having no industry at all. It is not specifically that revenue is removed, but how this decision is made. If it is developed as part of an indigenously-led tourism model, then it cannot be seen to be totally negative. This is not studied enough in the literature, and the literature does not look a t the underlying decision-making processes of countries in terms of tourism development. For example, it should not be assumed that just because an area is developed to meet tourists needs and some elements of traditional culture removed that this is going to have a negative impact on the local population or that it is unwanted. This is only our perception from the Western-centric perspective that it is unwanted. Maintenance of traditional culture is not always desired by locals, and in fact its maintenance may be antithetical to other types of growth. For example, in Beijing, China, many of the traditional hutong streets and residences are being replaced with newer high-rise buildings and commercial buildings. Whilst some bemoan the loss of this culture, it can provide better accommodation and facilities to locals who lived in these old areas, and can provide much-needed jobs and activities for a growing middle class (Kuhn, 2006). Not all tourism is controlled by international corporations and their influence over the destination region. Local and nationally-controlled tourism initiatives perform differently to neo-colonial tourism, and can potentially empower and help a nation to grow. This is of course shown in developed countries most readily, where locally controlled tourism helps preserve aspects of culture that are deemed locally important, as well as helping regions to develop and move closer together. However, it is less obvious and prevalent in developing countries. More research is required here, outside of the few specific examples that are generally cited to show how local tourism initiatives in developing countries are providing an alternative to the neo-colonial model (Theobald, 1998:69). The issue is that any adverse effect from tourism or any specifically capitalist market-driven decision in tourism is often seen as neo-colonialism in practice, but in fact the deeper roots of the decision need to be looked at rather than merely the outcomes. Local tourism initiatives may take advantage of capitalist structures for tourism development and specifically cater development to the needs of those from developed countries as well as their own people. It is therefore important to focus on the specific underlying influence of certain power structures on tourist decisions around the world, and this will give a clearer picture as to the true prevalence of neo-colonialism within tourism (Sharma, 2004:66-67). It must not be seen that changes within a country due to tourism are specifically because of neo-colonialism, or that tourism is merely the yoke that replaces colonialism in many countries. Whilst this is certainly true is some areas, it is also true that change occurs naturally and that tourism, whether influenced by foreign corporations or not, is a lucrative business (Mowforth and Munt, 2008:49). However, the real test for neo-colonial influence is whether these changes from tourism and the way tourism has developed is down to local needs and wishes, or whether it is purely created by undue influence from large foreign corporations. It could well be argued though that there is a thin line between the inequalities that inevitably emerge from a neo-liberal market due to the economic and political inequalities between the developing and developed world and the direct influence of neo-colonialism on tourism. Both can lead to negative consequences for developing countries, even though the decision-making processes might be quite different (Jamal and Robinson, 2009:154-155). In conclusion, the literature review shows that tourism has and continues to be a neo-colonial activity in at least some areas of the world, and that this has likely led to negative effects for developing countries. However, there are certainly gaps in the literature in terms of how much of tourism is based on neo-colonial ideals, and no real mention of tourism in developed countries, which contributes a lot to tourism and obviously is generally not seen as neo-colonial in nature. However, even if merely focusing on developing countries, there is a lack of information about the root causes for decisions in these areas, and too much of a focus on negative outcomes that perhaps have more to do with general economic inequalities rather than the prevalence of neo-colonialism in tourism. The next section will attempt to look at ways in which theoretical frameworks and research methods can be used to fill the gaps in this research and come to a conclusion about the extent to which tourism is a neo-colonial activity. Methodology For this paper, primary research was initially considered as a method, but was dismissed because of the difficulty of access to potential participants. Much of the focus of tourism as neo-colonialism has to be on developing countries, which immediately makes data collection more difficult. Also, in light of potential conflicts of interest between workers within tourism industries in these developing countries and those that employ them makes primary research not viable for this specific topic. Therefore, secondary research is the most logical design for this paper. This also follows on from the findings of the literature review, which identified a number of gaps in the research as well as areas of research that can be examined in greater detail using various theoretical frameworks. This methodology section will outline the various secondary research methods that will be used, how these fit in with the literature review findings and what they can bring to the discussion on the prevalence of tourism as a neo-colonial activity. The first important thing to remember is to avoid misreading the extent of neo-colonialism by being stuck within the perspective of neo-colonialism as the entire framework for the research. The study must not merely be conducted from the viewpoint of the First World, and must look at how both roots of decision-making within tourism and outcomes are perceived from the perspective of developing countries. We must also look at the way in which those tourists from developing countries flow into other developing countries and developed countries, as this will help us to understand the bigger picture when it comes to tourism and its activities. In order to avoid making snap judgements about the nature of tourism, the scope of analysis needs to be broadened and a multi-perspective approach adopted. This is of course challenging, and it is difficult to avoid Western-centric thinking at times. However, it is only by using this method that the true motivations for tourism activity around the w orld can be understood. As Ateljevic, Pritchard and Morgan (2007:24-26) explain, this is known as de-centrising the tourism universe. This is important as a methodological basis for the further research, because the literature review identifies the fact that many sources focus only on the problem from a Western perspective, particularly when espousing the problems of neo-colonialism. For example, many of the definitions or examples of neo-colonialism focus on the way in which Western countries such as the US took advantage of countries such as Cuba as their playground, and that this was detrimental to the country. This does not take into account the perspective of Cuba, and also the other political aspects that led to negative outcomes in the region reasons that are far wider than merely the Western influence on the tourism industry (Jafari, 2003:122). However, taking a broader approach does not mean ignoring specific case studies and examples that could shed light on the nature of tourism in developing countries, particularly as it stands now. Whilst it should be left to those in these countries to decide what aspects of their culture are authentic or changeable, it can clearly be seen in areas such as the Caribbean that, economically at least, tourism is still dominated by the predominantly white and Western corporate influence. For example, most hotel managers in the region are still expatriates, with only lower positions being held by locals. This may not be a deliberate example of neo-colonialism as it may genuinely be that this is the best way to make the business successful. However, it is surely an area that needs exploring and greater understanding given to how these unequal structures arise and if they are indeed only a small problem or part of a larger problem of Western dominance over these industries (Bennett, 2005:15 -17). This is why case study methodology is important in this paper. There are many existing case studies already evident, but as mentioned many of them do not take forward this multi-perspective approach to understand the decision-making within tourism and how this reduces or increases potential inequalities, and whether or not these inequalities are directly part of neo-colonial practice or for other reasons. Tourism is a process, which unless there is an obviously dominant hegemony at work, requires a look at the complex flow of global ideas, people and capital. As global trends change, so case studies must look at the current situation and not merely stick to preconceived notions of inequality (Salazar, in Richards and Munsters, 2010:188). The case study approach can be an initial entry into understanding some specific examples of tourism activity in various countries, and then different trends or patterns can be identified in order to start forming a more general and overall understanding of the pervasiveness of neo-colonialism within tourism. The case study is useful here as well because it is less important to understand the outcomes of decision-making, because these can be negative or positive no matter the influence. Instead, it is important, through a multi-perspective approach, to understand the root decision-making within tourism around the world, and this will determine whether tourism is merely serving a neo-colonial agenda or whether it is actually a complex global process that is influenced by foreign and local actors in different ways, leading to different outcomes in different areas rather a definite neo-colonial dominance (Beeton, in Ritchie, Burns and Palmer, 2005:37-40). There are many good examples of potential case studies that can be analysed and used to build up this wider picture that do not necessarily just fit into the traditional model of viewing a tourist area from the position of Western dominance and developing world dependency. For example, Wearing and McDonald (2002:191) look at the role that intermediaries play in isolated rural communities in Papua New Guinea. This is not focusing on the outcomes of tourism, but looking at how different groups interact, and that it is possible through intermediaries for the tourist to be an equal part of a system rather than at its centre. This would suggest the potential for a power shift away from neo-colonialism, even if inequalities and certain negative outcomes may continue and wider issues of economic neo-colonialism continue. This means that tourism does not have to be specifically neo-colonial in nature, even if other inequalities persist for now. Another good example is a study by Hasty (2002:47) that looks at tourism across Africa and the promotion of Pan-Africanism. This study focuses on tourism in Ghana that is controlled by those within the country and developed to promote more unity within Africa. The problem here is that various different agendas mean that tourist events to promote Pan-Africanism remove discussion of potential differences and contradictions. In this sense it is not merely a problem of neo-colonialism, but wider concerns between a variety of actors and the careful balancing act between culture, politics and economic interests. Finally, for tourism as neo-colonial activity and its extent to be understood, current research should be understood in light of the global post-colonial landscape. This fits in with the multi-perspective approach previously mentioned, as it goes beyond the initial attempts to correct neo-colonialism that themselves could lead to colonial inequalities. For example, appealing to sustainable tourism as a means to combat neo-colonialism could exacerbate the problem because the agenda and demands for sustainability would be set by the developed countries once again, and did not necessarily take into account the needs to the destination regions. The post-colonial framework goes beyond this to look at the situation from all perspectives rather than the previous ideal of trying to solve the inequalities created from neo-colonialism and colonialism before this (Carrigan, 2010:202-203). For example, if we look at the case of tourism in the West Indies in a post-colonial sense, we can see many of the previous inequalities that may have been associated with neo-colonialism. These inequalities could be viewed as part of neo-colonialism if viewed from one perspective or not adequately analysed. Rich West Indian minority elites have taken charge of some parts of the tourism industry, and are exhibiting similar dominance and influence to previous neo-colonial influence. However, as the inequalities in this sense shift and neo-colonialism becomes less of an issue, the negative effects on many of the local population remain. Further, these new leaders within the market can move into the international market, and therefore a greater interactive phase of tourism begins where flows of money and influence come from developing countries as well as to developing countries (Laws, Faulkner and Moscado, 1998:231-232). It is also likely that the definition of neo-colonialism will need to alter as globalisation continues and companies become more global in their outreach and ideals. Multinationals may then be as entwined in the destination region as their previous region of origin, or the multinational may indeed originate in the destination region. This alters how these companies are able to influence tourism, and also how they positively or negatively influence tourism. What was previously a one-way relationship will develop into a complex dialogue between consumers, employees, companies and both local and national governments to determine how tourism develops and where its interests lie (Page and Connell, 2006:467). It may be that neo-colonialism only exists in its most extreme form in specific types of tourism that are already of an exploitative nature, such as sex tourism. These forms of tourism are unequal because of the very nature of the activity, but these forms of tourism are slowly being removed and reduced in the post-colonial world as all actors within the tourist industry begin to deem them unacceptable. However, it is hard to completely remove these problems due to greater issues of economic inequality outside of the tourist industry (Bauer and Holowinska, 2009:6). Overall, the approach to the research needs to be multi-perspective, focused on a wide variety of case studies in order to build up a picture of the current status of tourism. Most importantly, it needs to be set within the post-colonial context and the questions to be answered determined by the subjects rather than the researcher. This will give a view of tourism as neo-colonialism that is not already mired in neo-colonialist thought (Belsky, in Phillimore and Goodson, 2004:286). The discussion section of the dissertation will use these methods to analyse the topic, and then the following conclusion section will summarise these findings and further recommendations for research. Conclusion In conclusion, the main findings in this paper are: There is still a clear economic imbalance between the First World and Third World, which is caused by a variety of factors including First World hegemony and the effects of colonialism and neo-colonialism. The Western, developed nations still dominate the tourist market, mainly due to their economic superiority. Cultural changes are less of an issue than they were during the colonial era, but economic dominance can still undermine destination cultures. Developing countries still need the money in the form of investment to build up tourist markets, and this allows Western countries to dictate terms, including the flow of money back to developed countries through multinational companies and the use of expatriate staff over local staff. This is not simply a matter for tourism however, and is a problem in almost all economic sectors. In tourism the problem is no worse, and in fact in many ways it is more of a closed system. The benefits of tourism often go to Western countries, but in general these are the countries that fuel demand. Sometimes this neo-colonialism shows itself within the tourist industry, leading to inequalities and negative outcomes for developing countries. Not all negative outcomes within tourism are due to neo-colonialist factors, and not all neo-colonialist factors within tourism lead to negative outcomes, particularly when looked upon from national, local and personal levels. Tourism as neo-colonialism does keep developing countries dependent on developed countries, particularly if tourism is a large part of their GDP. However, not all factors should be considered negative, because it is not just tourism that keeps developing countries dependent on developed countries. Overall economic and political inequalities also contribute, as do internal problems within developing countries such as poor management, lack of resources, wars and political instabilities. Tourism, even when dominated by foreign companies, does provide much-needed jobs that may not otherwise be available, and can help to maintain political stability in countries because of the needed revenues from tourism. Also, not all tourism that is locally influenced is positive. It can still be exploitative between different regions or ethnic groups, and can do as much damage to culture and the environment as neo-colonial tourism. Much of the research is too focused on outcomes and the potential ways to solve neo-colonialist problems within tourism. Outcomes are not the main focus here. The focus should be on the initial decision-making process, because this is where influence and inequalities are most keenly felt. Currently, the research that condemns neo-colonialism only further imbeds it because it is too Western-centric and does not understand the differences between what might reverse foreign influence and what is actually wanted and accepted by the destination countries. Instead, a post-colonial, multi-perspective approach shows that whilst neo-colonialism in tourism still persists, global flows of money and information are changing, and with it so is tourism. The world has changed in the last fifteen years or more with the rapid development of technology and the internet. This has globalised society to some extent and has allowed information flows to go in different directions for the first time. For instance, the Chinese are a growing influence on world tourism, both in terms of China as a destination and its growing wealthy class as tourists travelling around the world. These sorts of developments therefore need to be looked at from different perspectives, and not just from the previously established perspective of tourism as a neo-colonialist activity. Whilst economic inequalities allow developed-country dominance to continue, this does not mean that tourism flows are not altering or that First-World businesses that are involved in other countries are unwelcome or having a negative impact. Tourism, whilst still showing the inequalities within the rest of society, is slowing beginning to move away from neo-colonial practices. Global inequalities will continue, but tourism is seeing some change. As citizens from developed countries become more aware of other cultures their demands for tourism change. Also, as developing countries continue to change and develop and their cultures alter, their own capabilities and needs change. The flow of money and information is no longer one-way, and this means that not only will developing countries have a say in their own tourism markets, but they will become the future patrons of other tourist markets in both developed and developing countries. This will all move tourism further away from being a solely neo-colonial practice. In relation to conclusion 3, further research should move away from outcomes-based examinations of the tourist industry when looking at influences on tourism, and instead focus on decision-based analyses. It is in the area of decision-making that influence and inequalities most likely come out. If negative or positive outcomes arise from these decisions is certainly important, but if the decision is not heavily influenced by multinational corporations under the guise of neo-colonialism, then regardless of the outcomes these tourist activities cannot be said to be neo-colonialist. Furthermore, analyses that focus on the roots of decision-making will give a better understanding of how tourist industries develop and change over time in the modern global society. Based upon conclusion 4, further research should move away from the neo-colonial base as the start for analysis. Globalisation and the rise of larger developing countries such as China have created a truly post-colonial landscape where traditional measures of colonialism and neo-colonialism are less useful. Whilst rich-poor and 1st/3rd world inequalities still predominate, flows of tourism, influence and money are changing and becoming more complex. Merely trying to solve the previous neo-colonialist bias of tourism is not enough, because any analysis that starts on this basis will not take into account the status of the modern global society and the inevitable cultural changes in developing countries. It is important to conduct research from many perspectives, rather than the futile effort of trying to solve neo-colonialism by starting from a Western-centric perspective that is decidedly neo-colonialist in nature because it does not take into account the actual views and needs of th ose who supposedly need saving from the dominance of Western society. We should not assume that they need saving, or that indeed if they do that we can be the ones to bring about this salvation. Finally, based on conclusion 5, it is important for further research to conduct more in-depth studies of the global tourist market, and the flows of culture, influence and money that occur. Taking one country at a time is a good start to understand the basics of these flows, but it requires a global study, looking at the ways in which different actors interact with each other, in order to truly understand how the power balance currently sits and where it is likely to move towards in the coming decades.

Impacts of Child Labour in Developing Countries

Impacts of Child Labour in Developing Countries What are the causes and consequences of child labour amongst developing countries The child labour as a social and economic phenomenon has many aspects the most important of which seems to be the low level of financial growth that characterizes several countries which are commonly known as ‘developing.’ This paper illustrates the conditions that created the necessity of the child labour, and at the same time it presents the consequences of this situation as they can be observed through a series of specific facts and other types of empirical evidence that have been collected by the relevant sources of scientific research. The analysis of the problem, as described above, is followed by the presentation of a number of policies, which could help thelimitation of the problem to the most feasible level. The research done on this specific problem has revealed the existence of a high volume of relevant theories as well as of statistical data that have also been used to support the current paper. ÃŽâ„¢. Introduction The problem of the child labour has become a very important subjectof examination and research by the most of the internationalinstitutions especially the last decade. The reason for that is not the absence of this problem in the past but the development of the technology and the communication around the world that gave the opportunity for a series of long-lasting social problems to becomeknown to the international community. The extension and theimportance of the specific problem are severe obstacles towards its elimination. On the other hand, the creation of an international legal framework   asit has been expressed by the establishment of authorized bodies and the signing of a series of orders and Conventions, can considered as an important step towards the achievement of a solution.  Ã‚   We have to notice though that the best possible policy to thatdirection would have to compromise with the existence and the size ofthe problem avoiding to set targets that could not be achieved. Under the current circumstances, the child labour cannot disappear from the scene; it can just be reduced to a certain level (as this one is formulated by the social and financial conditions of each country). The main aim of this paper is to provide a detailed examination of the problem backed with a series of relevant data and other empirical evidence. The analysis of the current situation, as described in Chapter II, begins with the presentation of the background of the problem followed by statistical data and the views stated in the literature regarding the definition and the observation of child labour amongst developing countries. The policies that can be applied for the limitation of the problem are being presented in Chapter III. The investigation of the facts and the needs that created the phenomenon of the child labour cannot be achieved without the use of the literature (Chapter IV) that has been dealt with the specific matter mainly during the last years. The evidence that has been used to identify and interpret the problem,is presented in Chapter V. Finally, Chapter VI contains brief remarks on the problem as they have been extracted from the research done. II. The child labour in the international community – background, definition and areas of children exploitation The period in which child labour appeared as a social reality cannot be defined with accuracy. There are opinions that relate the beginning of the problem with the industrial revolution whereas other ones state that the child labour had first appeared in the nineteenth century. From an investigation that took place in Britain in June 1832, it seems that the phenomenon of child labour was known at that period and referred to children working as laborers mainly to factories butalso to other business activities. The above investigation (as it is analytically presented in Basu, K., 1999, 1088) was supervised by a British Parliamentary Committee and had as main subject the child labour in the United Kingdom at that period. Although Britain was in a rather high rank regarding the child labour – which can be explained by the fact that England was under development at that period of time –other countries that also had a remarkable industrial development likethe Belgium, the USA and the Japan, presented a similar image regardingthe work of children in the multiple sectors of industry (see also K.Basu, 1999, 1088-89). Moreover, the data collected for the measurement of the relevantpractices during the 19th century showed that child labour did notstart declining in Britain and in United States until the second halfof that century (L.F. Lopez-Calva, 2001, 64). The dimensions of the problem of child labour can create an important concern about the level of the life that a lot of children face but also about the financial situation of a large majority of families around the world. According to data collected by the International Labor Organization (ILO), there are approximately 250 million working children aged between 5 and 14, of which at least 120 million are involved in full-time work that is both hazardous and exploitative (seealso T. I. Palley, 2002). Although the so-called ‘developed’ countries have shown samples of tolerance regarding the child labour, the areas that seem to cultivate the problem are those with low level of economic   and industrial growth. In a relevant research made by D.K. Brown (2001) it seems that the major factor for the existence of the problem is the poverty. The capital market failure   of a specific country (as it is expressed tothe every day aspects of life, like the low level of schooling) isconsidered as another important element that co-operates the appearance and the extension of the phenomenon. When speaking for child labour we usually refer to any work by childrenthat interferes with their physical and mental development , i.e. anywork that keeps the child away from ‘childhood related activities’(Chandrasekhar, 1997). The above definition although containing ageneral view of the child labour, it cannot be applied under allcircumstances bearing in mind that a lot of differences may appear inthe context of ‘childhood related activities’ in dependance with the country and the cultural influences. In this case, a more specific description of child labour is considered as necessary. M. Majumdar(2001) divides the child labour into the following categories: a) the household work, b) non-domestic and non-monetary work, c) wage labour and d) commercial sexual exploitation and bonded labour. The child labour can be applied in many areas. As an indicative examplewe can refer to the report of the National Consumers Leage (NCL) which divides the possible areas of child labour into the followingcategories (refering to specific daily activities and regarding thedanger that they include): agriculture (is the most dangerous industryfor the young workers), working alone and late-night work in retail(most deaths of young workers in this industry are robbery-relatedhomicides), construction and work at heights (deaths and serious injuryresult from working at heights 6 feet and above. The most common typesof fatal falls are falls from roofs, ladders and scaffolds or staging),driver/operator of forklifts and tractors (tractor-related accidentsare the most prevalent cause of agricultural fatalities in the U.S.A.),traveling youth crews (defined as youth who are recruited to sellcandy, magazine subscribtions and other items door-to-door or on streetcorners, these youth operate under dangerous conditions and areunsupervised) (Occupational Hazards, Aug2004) III. Policies towards the limitation of the problem A fundamental measure for the limitation of the child labour is thecreation of legislation   that would impose a minimum work age and yearsof compulsory education. Although this solution seems rather in it’sdesigning, in practice it’s quite difficult to operate . The needs ofthe everyday life can often surpass the power of the legal rules, which have been structured usually after the examination and the analysis of specific events and cannot confront the problem to its whole area. One of the main problems that a family usually faces is the change inthe working situation of its (adult) members and the financial pressurethat usually follows. Of course, there is always the solution of funding (especially when the general financial market of a country offers such an option) . However, there are occasions that such an alternative cannot operate either because the country do not afford such a plan or the specific family do not have access to this plan. Under these circumstances, it could still be possible for the householdto tap internal assets. The presence of the father in a household, thepresence of an older person in the household or the capacity of the mother to enter into the market in order to work or proceed to another type of work (in a personal enterprise), all the above can be variables that can support the assets of a family even if the latter is suffered from strong financial difficulties (see also D. K. Brown, 2001, 766). Despite the theoretical character of the legislation, there could beother measures , more applicable   and feasible to be realized. Aneffort that has such a character is the increased spending on books,supplies, buildings and teacher training as it has been pursued by several governments   (D. K. Brown, 772). In cases that the child labour cannot be avoided, there could be somemeasures   to both to protect the children and help them to continuetheir school   (while keep on working). The design of specific schedules that would allow the children to attend school after their work could be proved very helpful towards this direction. Of course, such a plan contains a lot of requirements that need to be met . As an example we could mention the sufficiency of resources (teachers) that could workfor the extra time needed and – at the same time – the existence of afinancial strategy (and of the relevant money) for the payment of these resources. On the other hand, a problem that may arise is the lack ofequipment or capital for the premises of the school to be open forextra hours. And we cannot forget the danger that may be related withthe attendance late at night (especially in the case of the paper – thedeveloping countries). The phenomenon of the child labor has been examined and analyzed to the highest possible point by the use of the observation and theresearch in accordance with the existing legislation and the general rules that have been introduced from several countries aiming to the limitation of the problem. One of the most important studies regarding the child labour is this ofK. Basu and P. H. Van (1998) who tried to find and analyze the causesof this specific problem. After studying the results of the empiricalevidence they came to the conclusion that child labour was notconnected exclusively with external factors (i.e. employers) but it was mostly the result of internal (in the family) decisions and facts.Towards that direction, K. Basu   and P. H. Van examined first the view that child labour has been based on the ‘greed of employers who employthe children and the parents who send the children to work’. The above statement is first examined by the fact that in families, which can afford the non-work of children (i.e. when the income of the parents isconsidered as sufficient), the parents try to avoid sending theirchildren to work. This phenomenon appears even in very poor countries.Under the previous aspect, the child labour is connected with thefinancial situation of the family (usually income of parents) and not the interests of the employers. This assumption of the leading family’srole is also backed, according to K. Basu and P. H. Van, by the analysis of late nineteenth-century cencus data for Philadelphia whichwas made by Claudia Goldin in 1979. According to this analysis, when the income of the father is high the probability that the child will enter the labour market is low and this relation operates in a very tight interaction (the higher the wage of the father, the lower thechance of such a fact to get realized). Another empirical evidence that seems to back the views of K. Basu and P. H. Van comes from a research that was made on this issue (connection between the family’s decision and the child labour) by D. Vincent who studied working-class autobiographies. The results of his study showed that the children when working avoid to blame their parents but they tend to believe that it was the poverty that imposed their participation in the labour market.K. Basu and P. H. Van examined the issue of the role of the family’s decision to the child labour under the assumption that the decision ismade by a parent. They also admit that the results of their study may differ in case that this decision is made by another person (as stated by the theories which ask for the rejection of the ‘unitary model’ of the household). Regarding the role of the family’s decision to the child labour, J. G.Scoville presented a model of the above decision based on the use of mathematical symbols in order to represent the real facts. In his model, there are factors (such as the social or economic class, race,ethnicity, caste or color) that define the family utility function andin this way they can cause important implications to labour market segmentation (J. G. Scoville, 715) Regarding the existence and the extension of the child labour, M.Murshed states that two are the basic issues that need to be examined in order to achieve a comprehensive analysis of the problem. The first issue includes the mechanisms under which the family decides to send a child at work. The second one is the reason for which the employers demand child laborers. In order to explain the first issue, M. Murshed uses the theory ofBecker’s, known as ‘A theory of the Allocation of Time’, which presents a model for studying the household decision-making process. In the above model Becker’s suggests that the decision of the family is based to the needs of the household. Whenever an extra income is consideredas necessary, family decides to send the child at work. In this model both wages of children and adults contribute to family resources. As for the second issue, M. Murshed (179) argues that employer tend to demand child laborers because ‘they are less aware of their rights,less troublesome, more willing to take orders and to do monotonous work without complaining. Another factor is also that children work forlower wages and are not in a labour union because they work illegally’. M. Hazan and B. Berdugo (2002, 811) examined the dynamic evolution of child labour, fertility and human capital in the process of development. Their analysis is based on the following assumptions: a)parents   ‘control their children’s time and allocate it between labourand human capital formation’, b) parents care about the futureearning’s of their children, c) the income that is generated by children is given to parents’ and that d) child ‘rearing is time intensive’. According to their findings, in early stages of development, the economy is in a development trap while child labour is abundant, fertility is high and output per capita is low.   On the other hand, the increase in the wage differential (between parental and childlabour) ‘decreases fertility and child labour and increases children’seducation. As a final result, child labour tends to decrease as the‘household’s dependency on child labour’s income diminishes’. The ‘welfare economics’ approach tries to examine the child labour from the scope of investment and time allocation within the household. According to this theory, the time of the child (the non-leisure one)can be used either for school attendance and/or for work. The family makes a decision for the allocation of the child’s time (i.e. for one of the above mention activities) after the calculation of the difference between the marginal benefit of the child labour (i.e.earnings and saved costs of schooling) and the marginal cost (in terms of foregone return to human capital investment). If the first of the above elements is estimated as having a higher price than the second one, then the family decides the participation of the child to the labour market (see also M. Majumdar, 2001). The decision of the parents regarding the entrance of their children tothe labour market can – under certain circumstances – be unefficient.According to Ballard and Robinson (2000) the above decisions areefficient when the credit market is perfect and the intergenerational altruistic transfers are nonzero. On the other hand, when there are liquidity constraints or the altruistic transfers are at a corner,these decisions are considered as inefficient. A. Bommier and P. Dubois(2004) critically evaluated the views of Ballard and Robinson andargued that the decisions of the parents could be inefficient even ifthe credit markets are perfect and there are altruistic transfers. More specifically, they argued that when parents are not altruistic enough,there is a ‘rotten parents effect’ in which parents ‘rationally sacrifice some childhood utility’ and ‘choose a level of child labour that is inefficiently high’. V. Evidence related with the phenomenon of child labour The child labour has been the subject of a thorough study and research and there are a lot of theories that have been stated in aneffort to define the causes of the specific problem. Towards thisdirection there have been a number of facts or existing situations thathave been used to explain the relation of the child labour with somespecific factors . One of the most known reasons for the existence andthe increase of the problem is the poverty of the household which is related with the general aspect of the modern way of life (as it hasbeen formulated under the influence of the technology) and also the fact that parents when have a low level of income   do not tend to invest in the education of their children in order to achieve a high level of return (education can help to the improvement of the status of life through the increase of the level of consumption). We could also state that the income of the children can help toameliorate the conditions of life of the family and this could be thereason why the children tend to leave the school and work when their family is under severe financial pressure. This is an opinion that tries to explain the child labour through the life circumstances of a child and aims to smooth the negative consequences of the child labour. Although the poverty   is usually presented as the main reason for thechild labour , there are some aspects that need to be taken intoaccount when examining the problem. First of all, we cannot define withaccuracy the financial benefit of a family from a child’s work. Of course, child labour can help to the amelioration of the family’s financial situation, however it is not obvious how much worse off afamily would be if the children were in school. On the other hand, we could not specify the time needed for the economic development to beachieved in order for the child labour to be abolished. More specifically it seems that there is no consistent threshold of economic development, which preceded the decline of child labour to suggest the implied relationship between economic growth and declice of child labour (M. Majumdar). In such a case, the argument about the poverty criterion of child labour can loose its significant content. We should notice that, no matter which is the financial situation of the family,even in cases of exremely low level of living, the participation of thechild to a work that could characterized as ‘hazardous’ cannot bejustified as the protection of the child’s rights are a priority. Moreover, the child labour although can help temporarily to theconfrontation of the poverty – up to a specific point – however, it canalso create the basis for the development of property by generatingpoor people to the next generation. If the child returns to school theyhave more chances to a higher level of earnings in the future or at aleast to a job that will secure their living to certain standards(avoiding the condition of poverty). The combination of these two factors could also create a better investment and a greater security of income for the family by eliminating the obstacles of poverty. The relationship between the poverty and the child labour is not absolutely proved. S.E. Dessy and D. Vencatachellum examined the issue using a sample of 83 countries and found that the coefficient of correlation between the incidence of child labour and the logarithm of gross national product is –0.74. In this way, they were directed to the assumption that child labour declines with economic prosperity, as parents feel relaxed regarding the credit constraints. However, at a next level, they found that there are countries with similar levels of gross domestic product per capita that differ in the percentage of child labour. In fact, some of them report no child labour, where as others report a high level. This assumption is also in accordance withthe view of Anker (2000) who stated that although poverty is positively correlated with child labour, there are also other factors that can reduce the school enrolment rate of a country. Hussain M. and Maskus K.E (2003) used a series of data from 64 countries in the period 1960 – 1980 to investigate a series of testable hypotheses about the causes of child labour. Their research showed that the incidence of child labour is negatively related to parental huma ncapital and education quality, but it is positively correlated with education cost and also that countries with higher amounts of child labour tend to have lower stocks of human capital in the future. They also found that there is a convergence phenomenon between the level and growth of human capital, i.e. the lower the current stock of human capital, the higher is current child-labour use and the fasted is the growth rate of human capital. G. Hazarika and A. S. Bedi (2003), examined the relationship between the schooling costs and the extra household child labour supply and found that these two elements are positively related.   Moreover, the intra-household labour of children engaged in market work evaluated as unresponsive to changes in schooling costs. This happens maybe,according to Hazarika and Bedi because parents tend to consider children’s extra household labour and schooling as substitutes while they view intra household child labour activity differently. But if the parents could evaluate the intra-household child labour as an activity that offers more benefits than just an increase of the household consumption, then it could be a relationship between the intra-household child labour and the schooling costs. As for Pakistan(where this research refers) the intra-household child labour and schooling are not substitutes. We should also mention the importance of social norms and the cultureto the appearance and the extension of the child labour. The above analysis has to be done under different variables for the rural areas as opposite to the urban areas. Children that live in the first environment tend to help to the everyday activities in the farm and asa result, their work under these circumstances is presented as justified and necessary. As for the social norms, their role is considered as very important to the financial growth, as they have to power to influence the economic and social behaviour of the vastmajority of people. The most indicative example of their influence isthe fact that in areas where the work of children is accepted by thepeople, then the decision of a parent to send his child to work can bemuch more easy. Another very important aspect of the child labour is that is usually associated with the child abuse. Under this aspect, the reasons for the participation of the children to the labour market can be found in the demand of employers for cheap laborers and in the existence of selfish parents who do not mind sending their children to work if – in that way– there are more chances for them (parents) to rest. According to K.Basu and P. H. Van, although the child abuse does occur in allsocieties, the phenomenon of the child labour as a mass in most of developing countries is much more related with the poverty that characterises these countries. They refer to the example of England(late eighteenth and early nineteenth century) where parents had to send their children to work because they were obligated from the circumstances (poverty) to do so. VI. Conclusion The existence and the rapid extension of the phenomenon of child labour seems to be connected with the a series of external factors(like the low economic growth or the unadequate social policies of aspecific country) however it can be assumed by the analysis made abovethat it is also directly depended on the child’s ‘close’ social environment, i.e the family. It’s for this reason that the measures taken towards its elimination have to be referred into both these areas. The two sides have to co-operate and act simultaneously in order to confront this very important problem. The ‘solution’ (as it is often presented) of the child labour has to be interpreted under different criteria regarding the specific circumstances that it will have to occur. Although in certain occasions the entrance of the child in the labour market seems to be the only left choice, we have to bear in mind its particular physic and mental weakness (that follows its age) and evaluate the consequences for such a decision. In any case, we have to consider that a workplace that operates normally with the use of adult laborers can have negative effects when the issue refers to a child. Although the problem of the child labour is very important to its nature and its extension, the measures taken to its elimination don’t seem to produce any result. The conflict of interests towards its continuation has a great responsibility to it. 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